This paper is not to explain the culture and history of either civilization, or even how they worked. It is to look at the nomadic and semi nomadic civilizations and attempt to find answers about them. To do this, we must ask a question and then look for answers.
The reason for this particular question comes from a discussion with a roommate who grew up on the Oneida reservation in Michigan. His father is Oneida and his mother is Cherokee. The conversation was on how so many different Native American cultures point with their face or lips yet no one really knows why or how. He said that our landlady pointed with her lips, but she was born and raised in Tonga.
So the question is how did this habit spread? The rest of the essay awaits an answer.
The first thing that needs to be done is to get some form of understanding of the cultures of Oceania and Native American culture. Both have a very similar history of exploration, and civilizations. The Native Americans have the Aztecs, the Maya, the Inca, and the Mound Builders. The Oceanians have the amazing Hei’aus in the Hawaiian islands, the Large Heads in Rapa Nui, and the carved ships of so many different groups.
The ships which every Oceanic culture had would travel thousands of miles to different ports to trade for goods and cultural items. It would be ridiculous to believe that somehow the Americas were not found and remembered.
There is already evidence that there were connections. Thor Heyerdahl -pronounced Tore High Your Doll- being the most famous among those that supported the ideas. His argument was that the Pacific was founded by Native Americans and that they sailed to each island and back[1]. This has met several negative responses.
Wade Davis in The Wayfinders said that Heyerdahl, “ignored the overwhelming body of linguistic, ethnographic, and ethnobotanical evidence, augmented today by genetic and archaeological data, indicating that he was patently wrong[2]."
Robert Carl Suggs said in The Island Civilizations of Polynesia that, "The Kon-Tiki theory is about as plausible as the tales of Atlantis, Mu, and 'Children of the Sun.' Like most such theories it makes exciting light reading, but as an example of scientific method it fares quite poorly[3]."
The DNA tested was also more Asian than Native American[4]. There has been some recent evidence that there were Native Americans among the Polynesians that has come out this year[5]. So, the debate continues within science on whether or not these people have met.
Thor did prove that a ship could travel long distances to meet at different islands. There was also proof shown in his book Kon-Tiki about foods somehow showing up in the different groups.
Sweet Potatoes found in Northern South America spread throughout the Polynesian islands and even further[6]. The potato is native of the Americas and is known to spread to Europe by explorers. The Maori kumara is being tested for its exact genetic origins even as this paper is being written. Andrew Clarke a genetic scientist is attempting to follow the genes of the hutihuti, the kumara, and other pre-contact potatoes to see if they have survived, and where they are from[7]. His belief is that the Kumara travelled from the Americas to New Zealand 1000 years ago.
The belief in the Kumara also go into the word itself. The belief is that the word itself can be traced to a Native American tribe[8].
Another evidence is that of chickens. This time the chickens are native of South East Asia, but can be found in the Americas and Oceania. A genetic test of chicken bones in Chile show that they are similar to the chickens of South East Asia and Polynesia. The date of the bones is believed to be 600-700 years old[9]. The proof of the cultures meeting begins to mount.
The greatest evidence is with that of the Chumash tribe in California. A canoe, and a special fish hook are similar to that of Hawaiian crafts made between 800 -1200 AD. The belief is not the Hawaiians taught the Chumash how to subsist, but a form of maritime subsistence[10].
The slow scientific process is beginning to show that the Polynesians had trade connections with the Native Americans. However, this is not the only group that has lip pointing. The Filipinos[11], various groups in South East Asia, and the Yoruba a tribe in Nigeria[12] also point with their lips.
Lip pointing is a difficult subject to find within scholarly papers[13]. The only paper that discussed it was about lip pointers in general, and even spoke about how little there is written on the subject. The paper was mainly on the people of Laos, though there is a mention for people in the Navajo Reservation and Colombia.
One friend from the Navajo Reservation to the author of the paper wrote this:
I shared your letter with my office staff. Most were very amused that you would
take such an interest in something so mundane… A photograph? Perhaps, if I
can get them to quit laughing at the thought[14].
This shows that lip pointing is a common thing. However, it is not really seen as that important. What even the people who use it don’t know is all that it can show. It can be used to show that there is a connection between the Americas, Polynesia, and even into the Philippines and South East Asia. The rules for lip pointing are that it must be the subject being spoken of at the moment, and the lip pointing be in reference to it. For instance, while working at a scout camp, I would point at the rags and tell kids to grab them to dry stuff off[15]. The rags were the subject, and my pointing at them told them where it was.
It can also be used in referring to a person. The face points at him or where he stood and then the sentence talks about him[16]. In conversation when describing an event, the use of the face will help describe the places that things were as the person walked. Watching the face move back and forth in direction creates an understanding of events and how things worked within the story being told.
The use is not because the hands are full, however the idea behind this is used a great deal.
First, the empirical data from Lao show that lip-pointing is used when there
is no reason to imagine that index finger-pointing is suppressed, despite
suggestions to the contrary (e.g. Hewes, 1981). Lao speakers often reflect that
lip-pointing is what you do when your hands are not free for hand pointing.
Similarly, the lip-pointing gesture among Navajo speakers is said to be ‘[q]uite
handy when someone asks you a question and your hands are full’ (DiLucchio,
1998/1999). True, but this is more likely a convenient fact than a primary
motivation for the convention. People consistently lip-point when their hands
are free (see examples in Figures 2, 3, 11b, 12b, 16b, and 17c, above), and
furthermore they use both lip- and hand pointing during the same communicative
scenario, sometimes simultaneously or together in the same gesture
sentence (see pp. 198–203, especially Figure 15b)[17].
From my own experience with Navajos[18] it is in reference to anything considered alive when the lip pointing is used. This context is not within the Eurocentric ideal of only humanity, but can mean anything that is useful or can be said to think on its own. A sacred place can be pointed with the lips, or a dog, or a knife. There are other references to what it can be based on the way the eyebrows are being used[19].
During a later interview with the same roommate that pointed out our landlady[20], I asked if there were other things that could be traced between the groups, and his suggestion was the creation story. Within many Native American cultural beliefs the story is that people of the sky lived above the earth[21]. One day a girl fell down. To help her the animals all went to help. As they searched they found earth and pulled it back up and then were able to spread it about with help from the sky people. The Earth was held up by one magical animal that was from the sky. The animals change depending on the tribe, but it is believed that the tribe is from the sky people.
This story does not belong to all of the people. The Navajo believe in the four worlds system that the Aztecs and Mayans believed[22]. Yet the Navajos were my first connection to lip pointing.
Taking the creation story, or any important story like this has precedent in showing a connection. This ability to trace an important story has been used to help find the story of Anansi in African American culture. The story of Bre’r rabbit being caught in the thistles was in fact originally told in West Africa[23].
So, if we can already see a connection with the food, and possible archaeology, the connection of stories gives us a great way to see how things spread. As it turns out the creation story of Oceania is very similar throughout and has a basic story as well[24]. The basic story is that the world was water, and there were people in the sky, a spider finds a clam in the water and goes inside it. She creates the earth, and the light. Then with some will she gets it all out of the clam with gentle powers. There are different names, and gods given but it is the basic story.
As we can see the story fits the Cherokee/Oneida connection. The world is water, a magical animal is flying in the air and finds something below the water, another animal is used to create the land. The story has its differences, but that should be expected.
Now lets get back to the African Lip Pointers. The Yoruba are a tribe in Nigeria, there are over 250 tribes within the country, but Yoruba is one of the major ones[25]. The creation myth goes[26] that there was nothing but darkness, water, and a single being. In the ocean was a goddess. They created offspring and others showed up. One of the wise gods went down and asked permission to place earth. He was given sand in a shell, and there he placed it. A chicken was put there so that it would scratch up the sand, and where ever the sand landed, Earth and its continents appeared. The Goddess was angry and caused a flood, but the people escaped by calling to the gods in the sky and offering sacrifices.
We see the connection with the darkness, the water, and the way the earth is spread. At this point it is very different from the Oceania myth, but similar enough that it could be found within the same story arch. The idea here is not that the Nigerians created the myth, or had the exact same, but that it is similar enough to believe a connection is possible.
The archaeology on the subject points to a possible Olmec connection, but it is not the greatest to be found[27]. However, there is some evidence that there were African tribes within the Americas as the Conquistadors travelled throughout the land[28]. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa had members of a ‘tribe of Ethiopians’ -Africans- in Panama. The information is all second hand, so it is unknown who all he met. But he was told there were whole tribes of these people.
A specific type of banana can be found in Western Africa and the Americas[29]. The early conquerors referred to them even as early as the 1530’s. So we have proof both in food, and in connected history. The connection is not as easy to find or understand, but it is still there as a possibility.
Now that we can find the connections, let us look at the evidence and attempt to understand a date and time that would fit within these found connections.
The paper on the Maori potato or Kumara said that it was roughly 1000 years ago. The article in Science magazine roughly agreed. There are large arguments on who did what, but it appears that the Islands were colonized by 1200 AD -CE in the article- and thus the thousand year old tubers do find a possibility. There is also evidence that shows the winds were pointed in the direction of the Americas, giving the Polynesians a chance to explore[30].
So roughly one thousand years ago the Polynesians had trade with Native Americans, but when did it end? So far, within the evidence it is unknown.
How do the other groups fall into this? How do we trace this as well?
Seeing as much of the evidence needs to be searched for, the first thing that needs to be discussed is how did it spread? There are three basic theories on this matter. The first is diaspora, as the islands filled people sought other islands to live on. The second is diffusion in which the influence of the Polynesians and Native Americans spread the ideas, foods, and pointing without direct influence. Finally, we have Transnationalism which is a modern thought which applies Globalization on cultures. There is a fourth theory, and it will be discussed some here, but further knowledge should be sought in the paper dedicated to just this thought.
A diaspora has the idea of a homeland that is travelled away from. The people within it remember this homeland and base it as part of their cultural identity. This would explain how the Polynesian culture could spread so far, yet keep its identity so well. The people would remember their homeland as they travelled far away to other islands.
However the term changes depending on the user, Burbaker points out that, “From the point of view of the homeland, emigrant groups have been conceptualized as diasporas, even as they have been largely assimilated[31].” Because of this the use of the word is neutralized.
So although the Polynesians did travel far, it really doesn’t explain how the people came in contact with each other.
Diffusion is an older term but does apply here fairly well.
From Perspectives on Culture by Sidky the term means that, “Cultural similarities could be accounted for in terms of the spread of traits (or acculturation) resulting from contact or through the actual movement of personnel, or migration[32].”
He then points out that there are three forms of diffusionism, namely direct contact, intermediate contact, and stimulus diffusion. Direct diffusion would be a direct bringing of an item from one state to another. Intermediate would be diffusion by meeting with traders or soldiers. stimulus would be creating something based on what was heard of another.
One wonderful description of it goes like this:
There can be no question about the average American’s Americanism or his desire to preserve this precious heritage at all costs. Nevertheless, some insidious foreign ideas have already wormed their way into his civilization without his realizing what was going on. Thus dawn finds the unsuspecting patriot garbed in pajamas, a garment of East Indian origin; and lying in a bed built on a pattern which originated in either Persia or Asia Minor. He is muffled to the ears in un-American materials: cotton, first domesticated in India; linen, domesticated in the Near East; wool from an animal native to Asia Minor; or silk whose uses were first discovered by the Chinese. All these substances have been transformed into cloth by methods invented in Southwestern Asia. If the weather is cold enough he may even be sleeping under an eiderdown quilt invented in Scandinavia.
….
Breakfast over, he places upon his head a molded piece of felt, invented by the nomads of Eastern Asia, and, if it looks like rain, puts on outer shoes of rubber, discovered by the ancient Mexicans, and takes an umbrella, invented in India. He then sprints for his train–the train, not sprinting, being in English invention. At the station he pauses for a moment to buy a newspaper, paying for it with coins invented in ancient Lydia. Once on board he settles back to inhale the fumes of a cigarette invented in Mexico, or a cigar invented in Brazil. Meanwhile, he reads the news of the day, imprinted in characters invented by the ancient Semites by a process invented in Germany upon a material invented in China. As he scans the latest editorial pointing out the dire results to our institutions of accepting foreign ideas, he will not fail to thank a Hebrew God in an Indo-European language that he is a one hundred percent (decimal system invented by the Greeks) American (from Americus Vespucci, Italian geographer)[33].
Although not perfectly accurate to how everything has happened in the world, it is a fun article to read.
The term diffusion itself was used within Britain as a catch all for ideas that would seem a bit insane today. WH Rivers believed that all civilizations stemmed from a single one found in Egypt. No other group was smart enough to come up with anything and therefore could not create their own[34].
The one that seems the best to understand and work with is that of German/Austrian theory. It had its problems seeing as the belief still held that the ‘primitive’ groups could never get better without ‘help’, but the concept holds well[35]. Basically the belief was that of Kulturekreise or cultural circles of influence. As a people migrated, their circle expanded, so a kulturkeise could be spread as the culture spreads.
We can watch diffusionism at work within this study. The potato found in South America becomes useful to the people as they attempt to survive. When Polynesian and African Sailors arrive the potato is seen and asked about. Since it takes a while to restock food, the potato begins to be used as a food for the sailors heading back. The influence of the potato slowly goes to other groups within trade relations with the Polynesians. As the influence is spread, the potato is a part of life. Thus, we find it spread throughout the Pacific. A culture may not know about the Americas, but they would know about the potato.
Then we see as lip pointing spread. As a way to tell the story, let us say it began in Laos. The Laotian traders spread their influence based on items they are good at selling. The different Indonesian groups begin to copy them to fit within this influence. Thus lip pointing becomes common. The Pacific Islanders begin to do trade and mimic what they see. They don’t use it the same way in each group, but they see its usefulness.
It spreads to the Americas and with it comes different cultural stories that degrade a bit as the influence circle is moved out of. Some tribes like the Navajos copy the lip pointing but are busy with their own problems to copy a creation story.
The African Sailors arrive ready to do trade. The two groups meet and some of them copy off the pointing of lips with their families. The banana goes with them and the trade continues on.
This system of trade is built up in areas and falls in others based on the migration and needs of each group or individual.
The German diffusionist would have said it like this.
During these migrations people and cultures came into contact with each other and thus mutually influenced each other...this mutual influence has been exercised to a greater extant than hitherto admitted. It has also been the cause of new creations and modifications of culture, and wherever positively established, it makes the assumption of independent origin untenable and superfluous[36].
In other words, it would be difficult to understand where an idea began, only that it spread. Two cultures would have had to intermingle and thus the beginning is lost because of how the two took it and made it their own.
This is a great idea except for one part. Polynesians for the most part do not point with their lips in the same way the Navajos and Filipinos do. There is a missing cultural circle that we do not know about[37].
The response to this problem would have been this.
For to concern ourselves only with conditions we find among the primitives today in order to “explain” them on the basis of present-day circumstances is a matter of little interest considering the insignificant role the modern primitives play in the history of mankind. Besides, such an “explanation” on the basis of present-day conditions could not be a true explanation, as it remains too much on the surface; time and again it must be the cause of misinterpretations and could not even satisday the needs of colonial administrations, for whose “practical” purposes such “explanations” might allegedly be perfectly satisfactory... However... if these primitives... be taken as precious documents of mankind, as living witnesses representing the oldest phases of development, through which also the most highly developed culture peoples have passed, so that in these primitives we can study the stages of past development in religion, law, custom, morality, and art. If the culture historical school gives us the means to determine the correct sequence, then it shall have made ethnology into what its name implies, to ethnology which is not mere ethnography, or description of peoples spread out spatially, but penetration into the ratio... of the elements and events of culture[38].
This long winded explanation gives a problem in that the diffusionist viewed the cultures such as Polynesian, Native American, Yoruba, and South East Asian as primitive and incapable of spreading and doing the things they did. The defined idea of diffusion is that the people themselves migrated, but had an origin and did not migrate all the time. Thus, a nomadic people do not make sense within diffusionistic theory.
The ideas themselves are useful though when beginning to compare them to modern practices of Transnationalism and Globalization. The two work hand in hand and will be referred to as TaG from here on out to save space.
TaG within Polynesia has allowed for a widespread Diaspora. In fact it is believed there are more Polynesians outside of the islands than living on them[39]. The amazing part is that through a system of remittances the culture continues to grow. This diaspora has had adaptions as the people have lived outside of the islands and even outside of the expected climate zone. The first Samoans and Tongans I ever met were in Phoenix Arizona and had enough for several wards at church. They would keep in contact with each other throughout the world by phone and by computer if they could.
Remittances is the payment of money and cultural favors back and forth from the diaspora and the homeland[40]. The usual pattern is that of money to the homeland, and in return cultural items are sent back. The connection to the land is kept and the people go back and forth between their new home and their homeland.
Thus the term transnationalism comes into play. The term comes from Randolph Bourne who argued that the immigrants coming into the US were not adapting to the Anglo-Sachsen American culture but keeping their cultures alive within the new land[41]. The diaspora meant that the people were making a new culture using both the American and the homeland as a basis. As the disapora spreads, the homeland culture continues to connect with the homeland.
Gloabalization[42] is one of the most well known scholarly terms today, and takes up whole sections of libraries and books stores. The basic premise is that because of how technology and trade have made it easier for goods to be sold throughout the world. It is mainly an economic term, but can be used for cultures to spread.
The main reason for the expansion of the Pacific Island people has been to buy Western goods and pay for needs[43]. This has allowed for a diffusion of the Pacific Culture to enter into areas outside of the Sea of Islands. Likewise it has meant the spread of goods and peoples into the Pacific from far off lands.
Only as we combine the terms do we find a good theory on how the idea of lip pointing began to spread. The diaspora of a culture -now unknown- had used lips for pointing. They began to immigrate and perhaps become nomadic. Their culture spreads by way of diffusion and because of their heavy influence other groups begin to copy this pointing style. It becomes a cultural norm as more and more people begin to use pointing with lips.
The answer relies on the idea that many of the people involved were nomadic, and semi-nomadic. Thus we need to discuss the idea a little more.
The answer first needs some new terms[44]. The first is what to call a civilization that travels and connects with such a distance, and some thoughts on how it works. Then an idea on how this compares with the more accepted ideas of civilization and what to call that. The next is the question on why this has been unnoticed for such a long time. Finally, a commentary on what it would mean for our modern times especially with such things as Globalization happening.
The nomadic and semi nomadic cultures are well known to historians today. They have had large empires that stretched as far as the Eurasian continent or all of the American Midwest. The Native American tribes have been dynamic and quick to change to their needs. Because of this the Commanches created an entire empire without notice by the Spanish, Mexican, or even United States citizenry. The attacks and raids by the Commanche were considered a problem, but no one at that time looked at the area of these raids and saw an empire. It took a century and a half and a Finlander named Pekka Hemalainen to see the large expanse the plains people covered[45].
Likewise the Central Eurasian Nomadic cultures covered such groups as the Germans in the West and Manchu in the East. They could be connected by braided hair, the Comitatus status, and burial with weapons and armor[46]. This would have several different empires, and peoples, with similar enough cultures to find a connection. The greatest empire was that of the Mongols[47]. The system of adaptation and movement let the Mongols control the Silk Road and allow men such as Marco Polo to travel from Europe to China by road[48].
Modern historians are finding that these nomadic and semi nomadic cultures were very important. The greatest problem is an attempt to name such a large group. This was civilization that met a new form of understanding of how civilization worked. The groups were considered foreign even in their own lands by the more traditional way we think of civilization. So, it until future historians come up with a better name the Other Civilization will have to do.
The reasoning for this word has two parts. When talking about two people with the same name, it is often a necessity to refer to one as the ‘other’ one. Other also means foreign and unknown which has been applied to these groups for millenia.
The more traditional form of civilization did not believe in movement and adaptation. The system of control was that of Walls and Rules. When China wanted to repel the Other Civilization, it built a giant wall to stop them. Likewise, walls were used within a house to separate a man from a woman, or a servant from a landowner. This system required rules and laws for everything and even became religious in nature. Thus Wall/Rules Civilization is the first.
This helps explain why it is so difficult to find proof today of connections between the Polynesian, African, and Native American cultures. The dominance of the Walls and Rules civilization made the connections diluted.
As the ideas of Walls and Rules expanded into the these lands, the people who were nomadic and living in a culture that accepted these ideas began to shrink. It became standard to live in one area, and follow the rules now given. To travel meant the inability to settle down and live the commonly accepted life.
Because of this, while searching for words for boat people in books, I could find words for King, Priest, and even fisherman, but not someone who travelled in a boat[49]. The idea had been lost.
As Epeli Hau’ofa said in Our Sea of Islands;
In a number of of Pacific societies people still divide their history into two parts: the era of darkness, associated with savagery and barbarism, and the era of light and civilization brought in by Christianity[50].
… Only blind landlubbers would say that settlements like these, as well as those in New Zealand and Hawai’i, were made through accidental voyages by people who were blown off course- presumabley while they were out fishing with their wives, children, pigs, dogs, and food-plant seedlings during a hurricane[51].
Thus we find that as transnationalism and globalization spread, so do the ideas that a people once travelled from South East Asia, all the way to the Americas, and perhaps that they had connections with Africans doing the same. My small bet is that they pointed with their lips.
[2] Wade Davis, The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World, Crawley: University of Western Australia Publishing, p.46
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2211537/?tool=pmcentrez
[5] Erik Thorsb,The Polynesian gene pool: An early contribution by Amerindians to Easter Island, (Presentation to the Royal Academy of Science June 2011)
http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10422951
[8] Genetic relations of South American Indian languages. The Languages of the Andes. Cambridge University Press, 2004
[9] Mason Inman, Polynesians -- and their chickens-- Arrived in Americas before Columbus, National Geographic News 2007 June 4
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070604-chickens.html
The article goes over the same discussion as this part of the discussion in more detail.
http://www.mymovetothephilippines.com/2011/filipino-lip-pointing-the-whys-and-hows/
[13] Nick Enfield, ‘lip pointing’: A discussion of form and function with reference to data from Laos, 2001
[15] It usually took them a moment to figure out what I was telling them.
[16] While asking Brother Ka’ili for directions to the Pacific Studies office, he pointed to where they were with his face. So, yes, this theory is proven.
[18] I served in the Arizona Phoenix Mission which covered the Navajo and Hopi Reservations for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. I learned to speak Navajo among other languages, and truly miss fry bread.
[19]Corina Roberts, Pointing with Our Lips, (2011)
http://www.manataka.org/page1889.html
[20] Cornelius, Clint (2011 November 9), Interview
Cherokee Creation Story, http://www.snowwowl.com/swolfstorycher1.html
[22] Navajo Creation Story, http://www.lapahie.com/creation.cfm
[23] Peter Roberts, The Misinterpretations of “Brer Anancy”, Folklore vol. 99, (Taylor and Francis Ltd 1988)
[24] Polynesian Creation Story, http://www.pantheon.org/articles/o/oceania_polynesia_creation_myths.html
[25] Demographics of Nigeria, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Nigeria
[26] Yoruba Creation Myth, http://www.gateway-africa.com/stories/Yoruba_Creation_Myth.html
[27] Haslip-Viera, Gabriel: Bernard Ortiz de Montellano; Warren Barbour Source "Robbing Native American Cultures: Van Sertima's Afrocentricity and the Olmecs," Current Anthropology, Vol. 38, No. 3, (Tun., 1997), pp. 419-441
[28] Jack Forbes, Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples, Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois (1993) 16
[29] Jack Forbes, Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples, Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois (1993) 18
[30] Science, p. 1346
[32] Sidky, Perspectives on Culture: A Critical Introduction to Theory in Cultural Anthropology, (Pearson Education Inc 2004), p 83
[34] Sidky, p 86-94
[35] Sidky, p 94
[36] Sidky, p 95
[37] Menehune?
[38] Sidky, p 95
Transnationalism: Historical Perspectives”, p. 12
[40] Remittances http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remittance
[41] Lasch, Hansen: "The Radical Will: Selected Writing of Randolph Bourne" Urizen Books: New York, 1977
[42] Globalization http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization
[44] For a more in depth search into the cultural patterns and how history worked within this system please look for my Historical paper on the same Subject.
[48] Marco Polo, Henry Yule, The Travels of Marco Polo, 1903
[49] Lucia Tarallo Jensen, Men of the Ancient Hawai’i: “Ka Po’e Kane Kahiko”, (Anima Gemella Co. 1975)
[51] Hau’ofa, p 33
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